Car Accidents †Problem and Solution Essay

The world would be a much better place if there were fewer car accidents. Car accidents happen daily and regularly these days. They leave pains behind for the victims’ families. Many people think that they will never get involved in car accidents. They don’t wear their seat belts, they drive after drinking, and they use their cell phones while driving. They do all these things without even giving a second thought, yet all these things are preventable. No one knows what will happen to them in the future except for God; thus, they should always stay alarmed. People don’t realize that doing those minor things cause them severe pains or even deaths. There are more than six million car accidents each year in the United States. A person dies in a car accident every twelve minutes and each year car crashes kill 40,000 people. Someone is injured by a car accident every fourteen seconds and about two million of the people who are injured in car accidents suffer permanent injuries. Car accidents are the leading cause of death for the people between two and thirty-four years old. Car crashes cost each American more than $1,000 a year; $164. 2 billion is the total cost each year across the U.S. (http://www.edgarsnyder.com/car-accident/statistics.html). As you can see, preserving car accidents not only saves the lives of the people, but also saves the money for their countries. This makes everyone to be involved in car accidents happen in their countries. So what causes the problem? There are many different reasons why car accidents happen. Some people are distracted while driving. They are on the phone, sending text messages, fixing their make-ups, and most of the drivers are distracted because of rubbernecking. They set their eyes on something else and run into walls, other cars, or posts. Another major reason is drinking. People do not know how dangerous it is to drive drunk; furthermore, they don’t even know they had been drinking because they drank too much. The fatigue of driving for many hours causes many accidents too. Drivers get tired and fall asleep without even noticing it. The speeding is also one of the reasons for accidents. Even though there are speed limits for different places, people don’t keep them. Teens race on highways with motorbikes or cars. Adults get drunk and drive as fast as rockets. Some people face accidents because of others. Other people may ignore the laws of traffic and run into you. You may not deserve it, but accidents happen at any time. It is your responsibility to always stay awake and be alarmed. There is no simple or specific solution to the problem of car accidents. All of us just need to keep the basic rules and laws. People need to be aware of accidents at anytime and anywhere. Individuals cannot solve this problem. We all have to work on it as one nation to solve it. Only one or two people keeping the warnings in their mind won’t help that much to prevent the accidents. Everyone should obey and follow the rules. That’s why there are rules, to keep them. However, people think lightly about the traffic laws. They just think driving as their daily routine. This mistaken thought would lead not only them but other people to death. To be stricter so people would follow the laws, I think we should raise the fines for not keeping the laws. For example, people who cross the mid lines, people who pass the red lights, people who litter out the window, and etc. They all should pay the fines with conscience. I saw Malaysian people ignoring the warning stickers on their cars and throwing them on the floor. They think that bribing the police officer would do the magic trick. There are some police officers’ faults too, but it is wrong for us to bribe at the first place. We should take responsibilities for what we’ve done and pay them. Another basic solution we could do is to not drive after drinking. People who get drunk should take a taxi or ask one of their friends to drive them home. We should place the police officers more often on the roads at night, so people would not drive after drinking. Another thing we can do is to put more cameras on the road to take more pictures of those who speed up over the limit. We can put warning signs of cameras to help the people stay alarmed. Then the teens would not race anymore, and the adults would not drive fast for any reason. All the drivers should have a rest every two hours. People should ride on the trains, ships or airplanes for long trips. Drivers should get enough sleep or rest before they drive. They should not go for long journey after heavy loads of work. All of these can prevent the fatigue of driving for many hours. We should teach about car accidents, and about its consequences more often in school. So we can show the students how dangerous car accidents can be. I know people don’t wish to get involved in car accidents, but people don’t take it seriously until they actually get involved. The problem would not be solved until the drivers take actions and people take the warnings seriously. Fines and policing would not solve everything because people would only slow down in front of the cameras, and police officers. They would speed up again when no one is watching. If this continues like this, no one can solve it. The solution lies within our conscience and honesty.

Organizational socialization Essay

Organizational socialization is a very important aspect in all organizations. It has been a lot of definitions, one is â€Å"the process by which organizational members become a part of, or absorbed into, the culture of an organization† (Jablin, 1982, p. 256). Another meaning that we have for organizational socialization is â€Å"the process of ‘learning the ropes,’ being indoctrinated and trained, and being taught what is important in the organization† (Schein, 1968, p. 2). Last but not the least, we have â€Å"the process by which a person learns the values, norms, and required behaviors which permit him or her to participate as a member of the organization† (Van Maanen, 1978, p. 67). Organizational socialization is evidently very important for growth and satisfaction not only in an individual’s job output, but more importantly it is essential to an organization’s growth towards innovation, job satisfaction, cooperation, organizational commitment, and ultimately organizational performance (Fisher, 1986). Even though organizations vary in their different natures, we must keep in mind that the nature of man and the dynamics of working as a group towards a common goal is what keeps all organizations united in the process of keeping its dynamics at its utmost best to come with the best results as they can with the given field of work they choose to follow. This is why so many people have come up with so many different theories with having the most ideal organizational socialization in their company. More importantly, this is why these different theories matter in the day to day encounters of people with in the company or any organization for that matter. Although the theories hold well in some practices in organizational development, practice of each theory in different settings will still vary and depend a lot on how each person will practice what theories present specially in organizational socialization (Tosi. et al, 2000 p3). Up to date, there have been a lot of studies pertaining to organizational socialization. A problem with these studies though is that so far, little research has been done to measure the specific settings and circumstances in which such socialization occurs (Ashforth & Saks, 1996; Jones, 1986). There was this one study, conducted by Ashforth, Saks and Lee (1998) that the examined the effects of three organizational context variables such as structure, size and job design. These variables were tested on the use of socialization tactics and the impact of these tactics on newcomer adjustment. This was particularly pretty helpful in t he field of organizational socialization to measure and compare the data gathered not only in the newcomer’s experience, but also to contrast each experience in varying fields. The study and application of organizational socialization is very important in the dynamics of the organizational processes also for many different reasons. One is that organizational socialization opens doors to behavioral changes that may occur from an employee’s entry point to being a key player in an organization or in a managerial or administrative role. Another is that the transitional view point of a worker in this process shapes an individuals’ growth, behaviors, decisions and even some key points that help shape the entrepreneurial process of an organization (Gartner, 1989; Stevenson & Jarillo, 1990). Another would be that specific role relationships within the person and key outsiders can be shown by viewing the influential outside constituents as socializing agents that can assist a newcomer in the formation of the firm he entered. Another would be that socialization literature such as orientations and the likes can identify the response of a new comer to the pressures of the environment of a new comer depending on the adaptability of each individual, henceforth showing the diversity of entrepreneurial experiences and new ventures (Gartner, 1985). Finally, the socialization perspective complements the environment of the newcomer by specifying the mechanisms that singles out those who cant fit with in the new environment. In the socialization process, the newcomers learn how to adapt and value the beliefs through social knowledge their new roles and function that they have to play in effectively in and organization (Aldrich & Zimmer, 1986). Van Maanen and Schein (1979) even developed a theoretical model of socialization which shows that socialization tactics used by an organization can influence the role orientation of a newcomer. Jones (1986) argues that a combination of six tactics form a socialization process namely formal, collective, sequential, serial, fixed, investiture or individualized. Jones concluded that institutionalized tactics encouraged newcomers to passively accept these established roles, while individualized tactics tend to encourage newcomers to develop their own approaches to playing their roles. According to some studies, there are specific socialization tactics in organizational socialization, Jones summarized Van Maanen & Schein’s 6 socialization tactics into a single polarity called institutionalized vs individualized dimension. He defined the institutionalized to be characterized by the common starting learning experiences. Due to the nature of this specified learning, it is sequential, fixed, collective, formal, and investiture. On the other hand individualized socialization is by its name, individual, random, informal, variable, and disjunctive and divestiture. This may be due to the nature of how it is learned by the new comer as it was defined by its characteristics. There are a lot of bases for adaptation of organizational socialization. In the motivational bases for adaptation, sociability of a newcomer is directly in line with the newcomer’s motivation to adapt to the expectations, norms and values that are already eminent not only in the organization members, but also in the structure of the organization. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors also let new recruits attend to socializing with the older members and adjusting accordingly through their actions. Furthermore, man’s psychological make-up makes him have real qualities that will help him have the right motivation to learn to adapt to the new setting that he is in behavior wise. This is probably why individuals respond in organizational efforts differently which causes a personalized response to each new setting. In organizational socialization, the main goal of adapting as a newcomer is to reach the entrepreneurial stage. In the entrepreneurial process, this can be viewed as a way where in you determine where in you will to start out a career in the path you chose as a newcomer in the field that you entered. This process of adapting to the field that you entered can also be viewed as your initiation or stepping stone towards your will to start a business. Some literature has tried to link a relationship between the motivational factors driving entrepreneurial activity and firm performance, with limited success (Cooper & Gascon, 1992) Even though some studies show the motivation to adapt in the environment of entrepreneurial endeavors, the literature in the entrepreneurship world shows the typical entrepreneur as the innovator who has to be different from the people around him. In most studies present, there has been a small consideration of the motivational mechanisms, activities, circumstances, or encounters where imitation, accommodation, or compliance might be the critical survival response. Four motivational bases for adaptation to socialization pressures can be applied to the entrepreneurial context–Personality, Anxiety or stress reduction, Choice, and Rewards/Power. A big aspect you have to factor in an organizational socialization also is personality. The variable of the uniqueness of each personality is bound to affect the motivation to become socialized. An individual’s unique tendencies to respond to authority, his need for control, and feedback can affect the newcomer’s adjustment and accommodation process to the expectations of members around him. One example would be a newcomer with moderate self-esteem and self-efficacy beliefs will cause him not be afraid to explore the new role and seek feedback as the basis for learning how to behave appropriately, otherwise, his coping mechanisms will be different. In other cases when an individual with a strong self-efficacy concept may have the tendency to attempt to change the organization rather than adapt to the situation presented to him. In the entrepreneurial context, his need for achievement motivation has been manifested to be his driving force in his start-up process in the organization (Brockhaus & Hurwitz, 1986). The goal orientation, self-confidence, and independence that compel individuals to start new businesses may also be factors in the entrepreneurial socialization process. Another thing to factor in organizational socialization is the anxiety and stress levels of the new comer. The new comer’s capacity for anxiety or stress reduction is important given that it is only inevitable for a newcomer to face a lot of stress while dealing with the unfamiliar pressures of a given field he entered. Some people are even motivated but this kinf of tension created by a new setting that tend to let them seek out new information for a new learning experience. Through developing and adaptation to the new environment, they will be able to create a predictability and certainty. This will enable then to adapt to their new setting. In the entrepreneurial context, one’s ability to manage risk, and associated personal characteristics such as tolerance for ambiguity, are generally linked to new firm performance. Another important thing to factor in is the concept of choice. This is because a person’s motivation to adjust to a new setting will always be influenced by the newcomer’s choice and commitment he has to his new role. This choice is essential considering that this choice defines to what extent a new comer will be willing to adjust to. Also, if the new role is a role the newcomer preferred compared to his previous role, his inclination and motivation to succeed in the new role should be higher. Rewards and power also is another factor in organizational socialization. Tangible benefits and possible power holding roles can be a big motivation for a new comer to excel and be more adaptive to changes in his new environment. This aspect of motivation is an essential component of organizational socialization. This is because newcomers respond to organizational communications that specify role behaviors that can promise or lead to organizational rewards or career growth. Also, traditional sources of social influence and reciprocity, such as proximity, status, and affective interactions, may also motivate compliance. In one study, Dornblaser, Lin, and Van de Ven observed differences in the concerns and performance expectations of innovation managers and resource controllers in 16 innovation settings (Dornblaser et al. , 1990). In human resource procedures, most of the instructions regarding norms, values, standard operating procedures, skills related to the job and the likes are provided by veteran organization members. Organizational insiders act as socializing agents which serve as critical resources who may both be the reason for impediment or better adaptability of new comers in an organization. The person in charge of giving the orientation is in charge of providing the background history, informal practices, local culture and any other information that a newcomer will be needing to cope with the new environment. Due to this, the newcomer’s perception of the organizational experiences will rely a lot on the person in charge of introducing him to the organization. Through this orientation to the organizational structure, a newcomer will be able to adapt to the organization, despite this other current members may or may not also be cognizant that they serve as role models and information sources for newcomers. In the modern scenario of emerging organizations, given that there are a number of organizations setting a competitive scene, an entrepreneur must learn to respond or adapt to several incumbents representing multiple organizational contexts. Due to this, customers, suppliers, bankers, employees, and other members of the business community function as comrades who guide, and influence the new entrepreneurial recruit (Aldrich & Zimmer, 1986; Larson & Starr, in press). Mentioned here are some features of entrepreneurial networks which describe ways in which network members serve as socializing agents in the entrepreneurial setting. Typically, in organizational settings, there is normally more than one agent who influences the newcomer. The power of agents’ influence depends on several factors earlier discussed such as tangible reward power, frequency of contact, perceived legitimacy and expertise, explicitness of expectations, and the compatability between the expectations of the agent and the newcomer. Other agents such as colleagues, bosses, and subordinates surrounding the newcomer in his environment are very important in the process of organizational socialization. Although this area has not yet been explored, future research should be dedicated regarding the facilitation of better dynamics of all these agents in relation to maximizing the results of organizational socialization. In the entrepreneurial context, the powers in the dynamics of hierarchy are more subtle. Despite this it is still implicit in the negotiations and informal and legal contracts with critical stakeholders that they exist. (Gabarro, 1987). Ofcourse organizational socialization exists and is studied for a very good reason, this is done to achieve a better outcome not only of the newcomer in an organization but also for good output of the organization as a whole. Outcomes related to organizational socialization should ideally be measured to improve tactics on how to deal with newcomers for optimum results. Role orientation is ideally done in this process where in a newcomer will be briefed and equip to face the new challenges for his job. Given that a newcomer ideally fits in a fixed role in an existing organization, it is through this process that our new comer can accept the conformity of a position while practicing innovation that he needs to display in wanting the best for his growth and that he wants to impart in the organization that he is taking part in. Organizational Politics is also an intricate issue that managers should deal with in orienting a newcomer for his proper adjustment to the organization. This is where managers orient acquired employees by specifying clearly the job hierarchies and the reporting relationships associated with different jobs in the firm and its component groups. In doing this, the newcomer can easily distinguish his superior from his subordinates and more importantly, to whom he should regularly report to. It is through this formal communication that organizations can avoid confusion within operations and its structure. This can also be where a new comer can view the organization structure so that he can be motivated and set his work and goal towards climbing up the organizational ladder. Another important aspect of organizational socialization is the technological advances that now innovate the way we deal with organizations. Technology has now paved the way in the way run organizations especially in the way we store and communicate information. As compared to older and traditional means of running organizations, new age technology through electronic communication and information technologies, information is now disseminated faster at an even much lower cost that what used to cost organizations before. While more people offer increased data communications and more powerful technological capabilities, the advancement of the communication process has extended the number an variety of people involved in organizational decisions (Huber, 1990; Sproull & Kiesler, 1991), this happens because technological communications make it possible to diminish temporal and physical interaction constraints through online conferencing and the likes (Eveland & Bikson, 1988; Kaye & Byrne, 1986), it will also increase horizontal and vertical communication as everyone in the organization is easily accessible via the world wide web(Hinds & Kiesler, 1995).

Ap Us History Outline Essay Example for Free

Ap Us History Outline Essay General Information: Use your review text, other history text books, and/or reliable internet sources to complete each of the five (5) outlines over U.S. history from exploration through the Civil War. Be sure that all terms are defined and specific information is added under each topic. We will use this work in class over the first several weeks of school. All of this work should be placed in a folder and turned in by the designated date. This should be typed. You will need much more space than provided below. Adjust the spacing when you type your work. Native Cultures & Early Exploration Do you remember this topic from elementary or middle school? Brainstorm any information that you remember. In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue The first people to discover the land were the nomads that traveled over the â€Å"land bridge† from Asia The Mayflower brought the first British pilgrims The Native Americans showed the pilgrims how to grow maize Pilgrims introduced the plague to Native American Christopher Columbus and his crew landed on the Canary Islands on October 12, 1492. List regions of North America and the Native groups living in each— Southeast- Cherokee,Seminole, Apalachee, Catawba Chickasaw, Choctow, Coushatta, Creek, Houma, Lumbee, Miccoukee, Timacu Mid Atlantic/Northeast- Piscataway, Lenape, Powhatan, Yaocamico, Algonquin, Iroquios, Narrangansett, Nipmuc, Peqet, Pokanoket, Wampanog Great Lakes- Cippewa, Fox, Shawnee, Huron, Kickapoo, Menominee, Miami, Oneida, Onondaga, Ottowa, Potawatomi, Winnebago Great Plains- Sioux, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Comanche, Arapoho, Crow, Dakota, Kiowa, Mandan, Osage, Pawnee, Wichta Califrornia/Mountains- Paiute, Shoshone, Cahuilla, Chemihuevi, Chumash, Costanoan, Diegueno, Hupa, Luiseno, Maidu, Pomo, Ute Pacific Northwest- Spokane, Aleut, Athabascan, Chinook, Colville, Coos, Nez Perce, Puget Sound Salish, Quileute, Quinault, Tlihgit, Tulalip Southwest- Navajo, Apache, Pueblo, Hopi, Keres, Maricopa, Mojave, Tohono O’odham, Pima, Yaqui,Yuma, Zuni The Columbian Exchange refers to the transcontinental movement of animals, foods, plants, and diseases after 1492. II.Age of Exploration (1420 – 1620) What developments/changes BEFORE this time that had an impact on exploration? Political—the unification of small states into larger ones with centralized political power Technological— compass, astrolabe, cross staff, hour glass, the Spanish galleon Religious— the Protestant Reformation as a result of The Renaissance Military— The change in the way people payed for wars and the sudden need for a strong military was western Europe’s response to the challenges of warfare in the new age of gunpowder weapons Economic—The rise of capitalism created a largely urban middle class committed to expanding markets. As more people looked to buy products and goods, national and international trade interests grew . Nations/ Their explorer(s)/Major Reasons& Motives for Exploration/Location/Success Portugal—& Treaty of Tordesillas Ferdinand Magellan- first voyage around the world Christopher Columbus- discovered the New World; landed in Bahamas on first voyage Bartholomeu Dias- lead voyage around Cape of Good Hope (southern tip of South Africa) Pedro Alvarez Cabral- first European to see Brazil The Treaty of Tordesillas was created to settle disputes between Spain and Portugal over land discovered by Columbus. Motives: Wealth – gold, silver and spices Power Increasing opportunities for Portuguese trade Spreading the Catholic Religion Spain— Christopher Columbus- financed by Spain and claimed much of the New World in the name of Spain Vasco Nunez de Balboa- crossed the Isthmus of Panama and claimed the Pacific Ocean for Spain Juan Diaz de Solis- landed in Uruguay Hernan Cortes- founds Veracruz in Mexico Motives: Wealth Power Prestige Increasing opportunities for Spanish trade Spreading the Catholic religion Building a Spanish Empire France— Jaques Cartier- landed in Newfoundland Samuel de Champlain- established Port Royal in present day Nova Scotia, founded Quebec Sieur de Bienville- founded New Orleans Motives: Gold Expand French Empire To capture and sell American animals furs in France 4. England— Sir Frances Drake- circumnavigates the world Sir Walter Raleigh- The Discovery of Guiana and establishing the Virginia colony of Roanoke Island Sir Humphrey Gilbert- established St. Johns, Newfoundland Motives: Wealth (failed) Competition with Spain and France Spreading Christianity C. Other European powers exploring the New World/Areas Claimed/Goals of Colonies Dutch- Henry Hudson was an Englishman who was sent by the Dutch; he landed in Labrador and headed south, down the coast. Colonized New Netherlands and New Amsterdam II.English Colonization in North America escape religious prosecution  economic (business investments overseas)  place to work for unemployed  more political freedom Royal- owned by the King Proprietary- land grants from British Government to colonists Self-governing- set up ongovernment seperate of the crown (King at any time could revoke  privillage and declare the colony a Royal Colony) Thirteen English Colonies (complete chart in detail) Be able to compare/contrast. |Region |Date of Founding|Founder or People associated with Early History of Colony |Environment, Economy, and Labor of the Region;| | | |Notes on the Early History of the Colony: Why it was founded, |the role of religion in these colonies | | | |significant characteristics, terms, and/or laws | | |New England | |Plymouth and |Plymouth – 1620 |101 colonists left England to head for the Virginia Colony in 1620. |It was very cold in the New England colonies, | |Massachusetts |Mass. Bay – 1630 |However, the Mayflower was blown off course and landed in |but this helped prevent the spread of deadly | | | |present-day Cape Cod and the town they established on December 21, |diseases (although it did not stop it). The | | | |1620 was named Plymouth. |harsh winters killed many. The land was | | | | |covered in hills and rocky soil. There was a | | | | |short growing season, so the natural resources| | | | |such as fish, whales, trees, and fur became | | | | |the most reliable so urces for survival. The | | | | |towns were to support the religion of the | | | | |Puritans, who did not tolerate other religious| | | | |views. | |Connecticut |1636 |John Winthrop, Thomas Dudley, and other non-separatist Puritans | | | | |founded the colony. The first Governor, John Endecott, was a staunch| | | | |Puritan who percecuted anyone with opposing views. | | |Rhode Island |1636 |Roger Williams was a Protestant minister who sought separation from | | | | |the Church of England. Eventually he was tried in Salem and banished| | | | |for his views. He purchased land from the Narragansett Indians and | | | | |founded Providence, Rhode Island. | | |New Hampshire |1623 |In 1623, under the authority of an English land-grant, Captain John | | | | |Mason sent David Thomson, a Scotsman, and Edward and Thomas Hilton, | | | | |fish-merchants of London, with a number of other people in two | | | | |divisions to establish a fishing colony in what is now New | | | | |Hampshire, at the mouth of the Piscataqua River | | |Middle Colonies | |New York |1625 |Originally call ed New Netherlands, was so named in honor of the Duke|These colonies are politically, socially, and| | | |of York to whom the territory was granted on its conquest from its |economically diverse. The rich land in | | | |first settlers, the Dutch who came for trade and furs. |Pennsylvania and the easy access to the ports | | | | |are the reason the Middle Colonies are | | | | |agricultural and industrial. This region | | | | |experienced the most religious pluralism. | |New Jersey |1664 |New Jersey was sold by the Duke of York to George Carteret and Lord | | | | |Berkley. It was colonized majorly for farming and trade. | | |Pennsylvania |1681 |The King granted the land to William Penn, who set sail from England| | | | |August of 1682 with Captain Greenway and the soon-to-be colonists, | | | | |who were mostly Quakers. | | |Delaware |1638 |Peter Minuit was Dutch and formed New Sweden as part of New | | | | |Netherland. When Charles II, King of England gave his brother James,| | | | |the Duke of York, New Netherland, James demanded and received its | | | | |surrender. He renamed New Sweden to Delaware | | |Southern Colonies | |Maryland |1632 |The territory was named Maryland in honor of Henrietta Maria, the |The founders of the se colonies came for the | | | |queen consort of Charles I. It was founded by Lord Baltimore, |sole purpose of making money. The area is | | | |because he had attempted to settle in Virginia and was rejected for |almost entirely agricultural, so there was a | | | |being a Catholic. |high need for slaves due to the increasing | | | | |demand for labor. The most common religion was| | | | |Anglican. | | Jamestown and Virginia |1607 |Virginia was founded by John Smith, who is remembered for his role | | | | |of establishing the first permanent English settlement in America, | | | | |Jamestown. This was the first successful English colony, which did | | | | |very well. With all of it’s exports and imports, it was able to | | | | |sustain itself very easily | | | | | | | |North Carolina |Carolinas – 1663 |The Carolinas were settled by proprietors, who were successful due | | | |NC – 1712 |to the rich soil for farming and the available wildlife for fur | | | | |trading. | | |South Carolina |Carolinas – 1663 |The Carolinas eventually split into the modern day North and South | | | |SC – 1712 |Carolinas because of general cultural differences. | | |Georgia |1732 |James Oglethorpe was a British general from London, who joined the | | | | |army when he was 18, in 1714. After he had become successful in the | | | | |army, he was assigned to establish a new colony, Georgia, in 1732. | | | | |This was the last English colony to be founded in America. | | | | | | | General Social/Cultural Information Problems of early settlement – Jamestown, Plymouth, and Massachusetts Bay: Jamestown- difficult to produce harvest in the virginian soil spent all of their time looking for gold when they should have been preparing for survival had disputes with natives over land Plymouth- the settlers arrived at the very beginning of winter there was such a severity of food shortage that people resorted to cannibalism. Massachusetts Bay- most succumbed to disease or starvation Religion – ideas, important people and events: The colonies were mostly that of Puritans, Quakers, and Anglicans. Social ideas: If a man was absent from church, he would not be given his provisions for the week. For multiple offenses he could be whipped, or even hanged. Major cities: Philadelphia, New Amsterdam (changed to New York in 1674), Albany, Boston, Newport, Jamestown, Williamsburg, Annapolis, Charleston, Savannah, Providence, Baltimore, and Alexandria Labor: Law/politics/major steps toward democracy: Economic issues/relations with Britain: (define mercantilism) Problems a.Health: people often died of starvation or malnourishment. Disease also spread rapidly in the colonies. b.Cities: settlers had to develop their own form of government that was acceptable to the people of the colony. Indians (New England Indian Wars of 17th century): Both the Europeans and the Native Americans had a sense of superiority over  each other. This of course resulted in many disputes over things such as land. The New England Indian Wars of the 17th century include the French and Indian War of 1688-1763. These battles were a struggle for land and power, and resulted in the near-death of the indigenous tribes of eastern North America. Rebellions against authority: (Bacon’s, Leisler’s, Paxton Boys, Regulators, Pope’s) Bacon: In the New England Indian Wars of the 17th century, Nathaniel Bacon, Jr. rebelled against the authority of Governor of Virginia Sir William Berkley. After Bacon began his own group of volunteer Indian fighters and raiding a couple Indian camps, he was taken by Berkley’s men and made to appologize to Berkley and the council for his actions. After immediately being pardonned, Bacon demanded to be named a General in the forces against the â€Å"hostile natives†. Reluctantly, Berkley g ave in. The Enlightenment/Great Awakening: French and Indian War/Seven Years War (1754 – 1763)—For any war that we study, you should gather the following information. This will NOT be repeated on each outline. Major cause(s) (incl. â€Å"spark†): The French and Indian War resulted from ongoing frontier tensions in North America as both French and British imperial officials and colonists sought to extend each country’s sphere of influence in frontier regions. Major people/heroes (and what they did): William Johnson- He was one of the most successful negotiators with the Native Americans. Later he would lead the British to victory in the Battle of Lake George in 1755. William Pitt- Pitt assumed leadership of the British ministry in December 1756. His aggressive new policies for the war were a crucial part of turning the tide in Britain’s favor in the latter half of the war. James Wolfe- Major British general who led the British to victory in the Battle of Quebec. Major events (incl. turning point & concluding battles): May 28, 1754 George Washington lead a successful surprise attack on the French. His troops retreat and establish Fort Necessity. July 3, 1754 The French take Fort Necessity June 17, 1755 The British seize Acadia May 8, 1756 Britain declares war on France August 8, 1757 The commander-in-chief of the French forces, Louis-Joseph de Montcalm takes Fort William Henry. The infamous massacre occurs. The turning point began when William Pitt took over wartime operations Advantages/disadvantages of each side: France had the support of most of the Native American tribes. New France’s government was more uniform, and was able to communicate to different areas more efficiently. While the colonies were more separate and had issues with communication, their navy was much stronger and had a population 15 times that of New France, so it was easier for the British to defend attack. The French kept most of their forces in Europe, hoping a victory closer to home would be more beneficial. They sent barely any troops or supplies to their colonies. The British were almost always able to effectively blockade ports and prevent the trade and distribution of French trade and supplies. In The French and Indian War there were 13,000 casualties and 40 million Pounds were spent. G. Results (treaties, land changes, PERMITS): The French and Indian War resulted in The Treaty of Paris. Ap Us History Outline. (2016, Mar 17). We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you

Aristotle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Aristotle - Essay Example At that juncture, Aristotle left Plato’s school and went off to have other adventures as a philosopher and teacher. Eventually Aristotle moved to the court of Philip of Macedonia, and became a teacher to Philip’s son, Alexander. Alexander would later become Alexander the Great, a military leader whose methods are still studied in military schools around the world. Aristotle’s influence on Alexander is evidenced by how he treated his enemies and conquered peoples. Aristotle taught Alexander until he assumed the role of king at the age of 18. In Aristotle’s lifetime he wrote many major works, but only 31 survive currently (IEP). Aristotle’s influence is world wide because his mind formed the basis of schools of philosophy for 2000 years and was used to reconcile church faith to education and logic. Authors Roy Matthews, DeWitt Platt, and Thomas Noble state that Aristotle â€Å"had the most comprehensive mind of the ancient world. His curiosity and va st intellect led him into every major field of inquiry of his time, except mathematics and music† (Matthews, Platt and Noble 74). Thus, Aristotle’s influence is wide. Schools of philosophy formed around Aristotle’s ideas. ... Having an effect on the theology of a church begs the question then, how much influence did Aristotle have on faith, rather than reason, and does this influence water down Christianity? Does philosophy belong within religion, which is supposed to be based on faith alone? During the dark ages there were some areas of light. Rulers, who would try to educate some of their subjects, made this light. Two outstanding educator rulers were King Alfred of England and Charlemagne, King of the Franks. European education died out when these two rulers passed from the world scene, but later a teacher, Abelard, who was affiliated with the University of Paris, would again go to Aristotle’s restored works to try to reconcile the church dogma with philosophy to end the rivalry between logic and faith. Aristotle was the bridge to achieve this peace. His logic in deconstructing an argument still is a standard and elementary concepts presented in any philosophy class. In the Poetics for example, Aristotle reasons the basic units of society and how they evolve into a state. He relates how man is a political being and gives advice about how humans need to live in a political state. These musings form some of the basis for western thought and politics that Americans use. The Founding Fathers used works of philosophy such as those of Aristotle as well as those from Enlightenment of the 1600s who were wrestling with science or reason over faith. The American founders put their faith in reason by separating church from state, as politics should not be faith based but based on logic and rationality devoid of any faith whatsoever. However, the current political field in the U. S. seems to have forgotten these basic philosophical rules when appealing

Recent increase in suicide among young men in United Kingdom Research Paper

Recent increase in suicide among young men in United Kingdom - Research Paper Example A research work is made up of various processes that are based on of different systemic questions, on the chosen theme, which ultimately leads the researcher to arrive to an in-depth knowledge on that particular issue. In my essay, the problem is related to the topic of suicide committed by the young male population seen in England during the modern times. This issue is seen as an important part relevant to the modern society, where despite the availability of almost all luxuries to assuage one’s physical needs, young people of the age group of 15-35 years are ending their lives. Many researches in this line have shown that various psychological and socioeconomic factors are responsible for these young people to cut short their lives. In regards to fully comprehending the exact nature of this problem and understanding the reasons behind it, I have based my research work on the study of various data and a range of information obtained from various scholarly books, academic arti cles and journals, and the Internet. My article will conduct an in-depth study of various published articles from the newspapers, organizations associated with suicide preventing organisations based in UK, government archive files and statistical data from The UK Statute Law Database, Office for National Statistics, and WHO, and will also study the various psychological and socio-economic factors pertinent to this issue of youth suicide in UK; so as to fully comprehend the nature and scope of this public health problem.

Global Warming (human beings are responsible) Term Paper

Global Warming (human beings are responsible) - Term Paper Example The sun’s warmth is trapped in the atmosphere due to the continuous air pollution that ensures there is a blanket, which prevents the warmth from escaping from the atmosphere. The main purpose of this essay is to prove that humans are the main cause of global warming because of their continuous activities that pollute the environment. The essay will thus prove that the earlier assumption that the sun is responsible for global warming is a vague assumption. This is because there are no evidences unlike the many evidences on the human activities. The assumption that the sun is the main cause of global warming has been used for years by some people due to the historical changes of the earth’s climate. For the past 650,000 years, the earth has experienced about seven cycles of glacial advance and retreat, which has affected the climate. In the last 7,000 years climate has been changing in unusual way and this has been attributed to the small variations of the earth’s orbit change that has increased the amount of solar energy received by the earth (Rosser, 249). People have assumed that the increment of solar energy is the main perpetuator of global warming forgetting that the sunrays are radiated away from the earth after hitting the earth’s surface. Then, the heat escapes the atmosphere into space. This radiation ensured that temperatures are regulated by the nature. Human civilization has led to humans venturing in activities that produce carbon dioxide and other gases that act as blankets preventing the solar energy and warmth from leaving the earth’s atmosphere. The continuous trapping increased solar energy in the atmosphere is the main cause of global warming (Rosser, 256). Since mid-20th century, the climate has changed drastically. This shows that the industrial revolution that began at this time is responsible for the climatic changes that were experienced. Industrialization has hit new levels and there have been more fossil fuels burned

Small Business Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Small Business Management - Case Study Example purpose to gain wealth. (Now you'll get no down- pump on wealth from this writer. But it's way to over rated. There are greater pleasures besides money and sex. The Dot Com era offered great expectation and nobody wanted to be left out. Mr. Tuzman now says, "Say it truthfully, say it completely and say it first.") (Start-up Journal, P. 1, Wall Street Journal 2006) "We're growing too fast and losing focus." Those statements tell us money alone-in fact money alone tells us success and accomplishment will not come unless the CREATOR has decided it is so, and are willing to persevere until the dream is SO. Capital and knowledge are imperative to succeeding in business.( I preach not here-I tell it from being at the bottom and the top.) The truth is, it's not the end that matters, it is how you do it in between that counts. That you do it right,-in the end, that is the only result which matters. (Enron, 2006.) Small coin games will not give you no happiness at the final rest.Oh, but the glare of capital that overshadows all creation. It's something to behold.. This may be above you understanding, but there is no such thing as failure, only just not enough follow through. I'd be delinquent to tell you otherwise. Mr. Tuzmand is now apparently doing some kind of amends project-has a firm, the Recognition Group, which invests and advises distressed companies. It is admirable when he states that he advises future business relationships of his past failures. (Loftus P. 1) That indeed, is admirable in a world bent on suicide bombings and invading countries. Both have said, Mr. Tuzmand and Herman, they've learned their lesson. Life appears to be on the mend. He goes onto further say, (Loftus P.1) "I'm trying to... But both men now say they have learned their lessons, and they are using them in their latest venture. Mr. Isaza Tuzman, 30, now heads Recognition Group, a New York firm that invests in and advises distressed companies. Mr. Herman, 31, is an affiliate partner with the firm, although he recently took a leave of absence to assist his father's business in New Hampshire. The friends have reconciled since their falling out over Govworks. Recognition Group seeks controlling stakes in distressed companies with less than $150 million in annual revenue. The firm works on behalf of other private-equity firms and workout groups within banks. After all, the messy demise of Govworks.com, an online government-services provider, was chronicled in the 2001 documentary "Startup.com." The film showed a company enriched by $60 million in venture backing growing too fast and losing focus. A low point came when Mr. Isaza Tuzman fired Mr. Herman, his childhood friend and Govworks co-founder. But both men now say they have learned their lessons, and they are using them in their latest venture. Mr. Isaza Tuzman, 30, now heads Recognition Group, a New York firm that invests in and advises distressed companies. Mr.

AAN case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

AAN case study - Essay Example Many efforts have been put in place to protect personal and private data from infringement and theft for intellectual purposes or simply destruction by people considered enemies of the state. As such, many governments all over the world are in pursuit of reliable data monitoring, investigation and other intelligence driven motives electronics that will guarantee such an achievement (Barkan, et al., 2008, pp.392-429). Many countries, especially those in the Asian continent have appreciated the need for information security and they are now facing a very steep learning curve as they have embarked on evaluation and assessment of the new technologies in use and those in the market in order to establish their viabilities, vulnerabilities threats of security and their strength in ensuring that security threats are minimized or eliminated (Faisal, et al., 2007, pp.667-699). Various strategies have been put forward to help tackle security problems in India and the government has seen the nee d to indulge international firms that could be contracted to provide these monitoring and investigation electronic devices. AAN Limited is a company that deals in small electrical products that do have minimal intellectual property value compared with other companies that design the same. The company has sought markets within the Asian region in the past three years. Following this marketing campaign, AAN needs to bid for a contract that is highly ambitious able to impact the organization in a massive scale. This contract is owned by the Indian government where the contractor will have to design a variety of cutting edge electronic products that would be made use of in the secret services of India. The use of these products will be put to use in the monitoring and investigating those people who are a threat to the national security of India. The contract will be worth 144 million sterling pounds in the first two years and an additional sum of 134 million for the next three years aft er the first phase bringing the total contract to a value of 278 million sterling pounds per year. This report aims to address various issues related to security as far as the audit done on AAN case study is concerned. 2.0 Information Security and devices 2.1 Highly Secretive Organizations Highly secretive organization means being a firm that does not expose its dealings to the public. In this case, what happens within the organization is little known to people who are not selected to know. Such organizations deal with top secret or confidential information most especially that relating to the state security and other government machineries. Highly secretive organizations have been known to exist in the minds of many without necessarily having a name or label to identify them a factor which makes it even hard for non-involved party to discuss or even know anything about them in real life and what they do. Most of these secretive organizations are related to the states in which they operate and in their operations, they use high technology devices to track information, monitor movement of people and goods, and make various investigations with the aim of establishing more information that could be used for security purposes (Challa & Pradhan, 2007, pp.87-96). They also use cryptographic modules which do conform to high set standards that form what might be called approved security standards entailing cryptographic algorithms, key management techniques by use of cryptography, and techniques of authentication with the objective of protecting the government’s sensitive information or their own from the public and people considered threats to security (Garg & Verma,

Value and risk management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Value and risk management - Assignment Example Dundee arena has its substructure done as aggregate and isolated foundations but no permanency of the ice floor. As a result the concrete used is more in order to hold the weight of the ice floor. II. The frame work for Skydome arena is 9.4% of total cost and at  £176.44 per m2 compared to 9% of Dundee Arena and  £73.2 per m2. This gives a difference of 7.6% i.e.  £103.24 per m2. The two arenas both adopt steel frames for the construction. The difference in cost per m2 has resulted from the large roof being constructed and which lacks intermediate columns. These types of roof spans are quite expensive to put up. The span for Skydome arena is therefore in excess of 60m as a result requiring more quantities of steel in the roof trusses. Therefore the basic estimate of 80kg per m2 of the gross floor area is projected. The amount of steel applied in Dundee arena is less kilograms per metre squared. This is highly unlikely to jeopardize the quality of the stadium. However, adjustment can be made as necessary bearing in mind the total weight of the whole arena. The 80kg steel per m2 can be reduced to 60kg per m2 or even less if intermediate columns are used instead for suppor t. III. The Roofing is 8.6% for Skydome arena at  £161.46 per m2 as compared to 3% for Dundee Arena at  £22.5 per m2. An overestimate of 5.4% on roofing at  £139 per m2 is determined here. The roofing material and structure has deployed very expensive methods and materials. The roof for Skydome is intended to have partial composite construction with mastic asphalt for the plant area and clad with profiled metal decks on purlins. For the insulation a PVC single-ply membrane and a vapor barrier is adopted plus a plywood base. All these materials are very expensive and should be substituted with cheaper materials while maintaining quality of the roof structure. Dundee arena has adopted steel plates and metal cladding other than plywood and vapor barrier. IV.

Background and purpose of the project Essay Example for Free

Background and purpose of the project Essay Introduction. The Manuscript Digitization Demonstration Project was sponsored by the Library of Congress Preservation Office in cooperation with the National Digital Library Program (NDLP). This report includes copies of sample images created during the projects Phase I, which extended through 1995.1 During 1996, Phase II of the project created a testbed of 10,000 images of manuscript items from the Federal Theatre Project collection in the Librarys Music Division. These images are now online as a part of that collection; selected examples have been referenced and made accessible in later sections of this report. Background. The Library of Congress is developing its capabilities for providing computerized access to its collections. In part, this means wrestling with practicalities of production and identifying and testing a broad range of tools and techniques. In part, it also means investigating the ramifications of digitization as it pertains to preservation, understood to include both the conservation of the original item and the conversion of originals through preservation reformatting. Preservation reformatting refers to the copying of items as a safeguard against loss or damage, i.e., insurance that the worlds heritage will be kept alive for future generations. Today, most preservation reformatting consists of microfilming, although other types of copies are also made. Two features are of special concern to those responsible for carrying out preservation reformatting: the faithfulness of the copy and its longevity. This demonstration project was concerned with the former, i.e., image quality. Other parallel projects are investigating longevity issues.2 The Library commissioned the Manuscript Digitization Demonstration Project because it believes that certain classes of manuscript documents lend themselves to the creation of digital copies that are faithful to the originals in a reasonably efficient manner. The Library was cognizant of the work being carried out by the Cornell University Library regarding printed matter3, and saw that manuscripts would make for a useful demonstration project at the Library of Congress. A key issue for the Library is finding the most judicious balance between conserving precious original documentsprotecting them from damageand achieving a reasonably rapid rate of conversion. The outcomes of this project are expected to assist the Library in designing models for further conversion applications for the Librarys collections. Manuscript collections. The manuscript holdings of the Library of Congress include extensive papers of individuals and organizations, many from nineteenth and twentieth century America. Since the Librarys digitization efforts are initially focused on its American holdings, this demonstration project emphasizes the physical types of documents found in these papers collections. The specific test documents were selected from the Federal Theatre Project collection held by the Music Division. The Federal Theatre Project (FTP) was a New Deal effort that employed out-of-work playwrights, actors, directors and stagehands to produce and perform plays in many American cities during the latter years of the Great Depression. For the purposes of this project, a manuscript page was defined as a separate handwritten or typed sheet of paper, generally at A size or legal size, i.e., from 8.511 inches to 8.514 inches. The test documents include scripts, administrative files, and surveys of theater genres commissioned by the FTP. During Phase I, a set of documents was used to produce a variety of sample images for study. Examples of these images illustrate this report and are accessible from Appendix A. A portion of the sample set represented paper in good condition with reasonably clear, dark writing on a reasonably light background. The other portion of the preservation research sample included documents that represent typical scanning problems: * a mix of colors or pencil and ink, * low contrast and carbon copies of typed materials in which the edges of the character imprint are soft, * documents that have extraneous markings or print-through. The Document Digitization Evaluation Committee. The Manuscript Digitization Demonstration Project was carried out by Picture Elements, Inc., working in close relationship with a special Document Digitization Evaluation Committee. This committee was made up of Library of Congress staff members (listed here alphabetically) representing various units with an interest in digitization. * Ardith Bausenbach Automation Planning and Liaison Office, Library Services * Julio Berrios Photoduplication Service * Lynn Brooks Information Technology Services * Paul Chestnut Manuscript Division * Carl Fleischhauer National Digital Library Program; project planner and contracting officers technical representative * Nick Kozura Law Library * Basil Manns Preservation Research and Testing Office * Betsy Parker Prints and Photographs Division * Ann Seibert Conservation Office * Leo Settler Automation Planning and Liaison Office * Tamara Swora National Digital Library Program; project planner and contracting officers technical representative * Peter Waters Conservation Office * Walter Zvonchenko Music Division The committee met on a regular basis during Phase I. At these meetings, Picture Elements representatives reported their survey findings, presented sample images, conducted tours of sites at which special scanners could be examined, and led the discussions that ultimately resulted in the findings and proposals provided in this document. The activities of Phase II are reported in Sections 12 and 13. The projects findings are summarized in Section 14. Developing Project Objectives Proposals should include both goals and objectives. Goals provide an overall philosophy, a concise statement to the purpose of the whole project. Objectives relate directly to the goals and say what you are going to do, but not how you are going to accomplish your goals. The Methods or Procedures section describes how. A well-considered project will have one to three main goals, several objectives related to each goal and many action steps to take to achieve each objective. Objectives discuss who is going to do what, when they will do it and how it will be measured. For example†¦ At the end of the three-day training session (when), workshop participants (who) will infuse quantitative reasoning into one course (what) as determined by a survey distributed and reviewed by a panel of knowledgeable faculty members. Objectives discuss the desired end results of the project, not how those results will be accomplished. For example, an objective would not be â€Å"to construct a new Art Gallery.† That is a method, or one way to accomplish the goal of building the audience for art appreciation. Objectives for this goal might be to†¦ Increase attendance from the local community (what and who) within the next five years (when) at the scheduled art exhibits, as indicated by daily registers of attendees. AND/OR†¦ Affect the level of art appreciation (what) within the local community (who) by offering an annual series of four regularly scheduled lectures (when) as measured by pre- and post-surveys of audience members. Writing research objectives are somewhat different, since basic research involves the generation of new knowledge rather than changing a behavior or developing a product. Research objectives may be stated as hypotheses or as research questions. Research objectives/hypotheses/questions are generally short. For example, research objectives might be to†¦ * Determine the impact of contaminated sewage water on the xxx fish population in Barnegat Bay. * Identify the needs of the fish industry in preventing the loss of these fish due to contamination. * Formulate guidelines for the wastewater treatment plant to meet the needs of the fish industry and the xxx fish. Objectives should flow logically from the problem statement/needs assessment. After identifying a set of objectives, you can develop methods and activities that will lead to these objectives. The evaluation plan will follow easily from well-developed objectives.

Price And Non Price Competition In Shampoo Industry Economics Essay

Price And Non Price Competition In Shampoo Industry Economics Essay Price competition is nothing but competing on the basis of price which may involve price cutting. This may not involve in maximization of profits because price cut by one firm will force others to do the same, in a way every player is more or less having the same market share and no profits or less profits. A monopolistic market is very competitive and a price competition will exist or can sustain only in the short run like the monopolist, the monopolistically firm maximizes short run profit by following the MC=MR rule. As under the monopoly, if the price equals the ATC curve, the firm earns a short run normal profit. If the price is below the ATC curve, the firm suffers a short run loss, and if the price is below the average variable cost curve curve, the firm shuts down. In the words of Nicolson Non price competition is the competition by sellers for sales by means of other than price cutting. In the long run the monopolistically competitive firm, unlike a monopolist, will not earn an economic profit in the long rum. Rather , like a perfect competitor, the monopolistically competitive firm earns only a normal profit in the long run. The reason is that the short run profits and easy entry attract new firms into the industry. So in the long run competition is more likely using the non price factors. This refers to the attempt to attract the customers through changing the quality of the product, changing the market place, intense publicity service etc. Non price competition is the competition through product differ. Coming to the oligopoly market, because each oligopolist is a major factor in the market, oligopolists pricing decisions are mutually interdependent. The price one producer asks significantly affects the others sales. Hence when one oligopolistic firm lowers it price, all the others can be expected to lower theirs, to prevent erosion of their market shares. The oligopolist may have to second-guess other producers pricing policies-how they will react to a change in price, and what that might mean for its own policy. In fact, oligopolistic pricing decisions resemble moves in a chess game. The thinking may be so complicated that no one can predict what will happen. Thus, theories of oligopolistic price determination tend to be confined almost exclusively to the short run. Another line of thought arising from the kinked demand curve model is that, if firms are inhibited from changing their price competitive in some way because of their conjectures about rivals reaction, they will turn instead to non price forms of competition, such as advertizing and product variation, either separately or in combination. However, if a firm A increases its advertising expenditure, and that expenditure is successful in attracting more buyers, there may be some increase in the total market for the product but the main gains will be at the expense of rivals products. Competing firms can, therefore be expected to match any increase in advertising expenditure in an attempt to retain their market any increase in advertising expenditure in an attempt to retain their market share for exactly the same reason that they would match any price reductions. In the end, all firms would be faced with higher advertising costs, but not much to show for it in term of extra sales or profit s. Conversely, if A reduced its advertising expenditure, it would lose sales to its competitors who, having benefited from the situation, would appear to have little incentive to match As reduced level of expenditure. So again, it can be argued that changes in either direction from the status quo are likely to be unprofitable. However, it can also be argued that firms are likely to be more willing to risk an increase in advertising expenditure than a price reduction. A price reduction is, in a sense, a crude weapon that can be easily matched by rivals, whilst advertising has a more qualitative dimension that can less easily be countered. If a firm, therefore, has a good advertising idea or new improved product to market, it might be willing to embark on an advertising campaign to exploit the situation even in the almost certain knowledge that its action would provoke retaliation from competitors, whilst remaining reluctant to engage in a price war. The qualitative dimension to advertising may also lead firm to be less willing to be to act collusively, either formally or informally to reduced advertising expenditures than to rise price. Hence the issues raised in receving two sections are likely to be less constraining influence on advertising and product behavior than on price change. ELASTICITY: The change in demand or supply curve relative to the change in price is called as curves elasticity. Different products have different elasticies depending on the essentiality the elasticity differs from product to product. The products that have the functionality of meeting the necessities are not so venerable to price, because people any way would buy those products. A good is said to be highly elastic if an iota change in price leads to great change in demand or supply. In the same way an inelastic good is something where any change in price would not effect the demand. The equation for elasticity is:   Elasticity = percentage change in quantity / percentage change in price If elasticity (e) >= 1, then the curve is said to be elastic. If e Basically the demand curve is a negative slope, and if there is a large decrease in the quantity demanded with a small increase in price, the demand curve looks flatter, or more horizontal. This flatter curve means that the good or service in question is elastic.   C:UsersSrujanaDesktopuntitled folder 2economics12.gif The inelastic demand small change in quantity due to large change in price.   D:untitled folder 2economics13.gif Elasticity for supply : change in price results in a huge change in the amount supplied. Elasticity in this case would be greater than or equal to one.   D:untitled folder 2economics14.gif big change in price only results in a minor change in the quantity supplied. C:UsersSrujanaDesktopuntitled folder 2economics15.gif Determinants of Elasticity: Many factors influence elasticity, some of which are: Necessities versus Luxuries   To find a substitute is extremely difficult so demand will change very less. Availability of Close Substitutes. Definition of the Market   bigger the market more is the chance of finding the substitutes Time Horizon. Relative Size of Purchase. SHAMPOO INDUSTRY: Hair care products consist of hair oil, shampoos, conditioners and hair color. The size of the shampoo market reached Rs 850 crore and 30,000 tonnes in volume terms. The shampoo Market is the fastest growing item with in personal product category and it has expanded by nearly two and a half times in last few years, though the market is confined mainly to the urban locations in India. Shampoo usage in India: shampoos remain in low penetration category when compared with soaps and detergents whose penetration level is more than 90 percent.As per industry estimates, the urban Markey penetration of shampoo was about 36 per cent whereas in the rural market, usage was of the order of 12 per cent of the total population. Thus, there is a considerable scope for expansion by converting non-users. In respect to function, shampoo are of the following types: a) All purpose shampoos b) Special shampoos for dry, normal, oi!y, tinted, and bleached hair formulated on the principle that these hair conditions require special products c) Baby shampoos formulated to be nonsmarting to the eyes d) Medicated dandruff shampoos e) Color shampoos Factors for selecting a shampoo(Consumer point of view): Ease of application Lather Manageability Fragrance Luster Low level of irritation. Good stability. Economical. Look and feel of shampoo. Benefits offered by shampoo. Major barriers shampoo use in India are: common beliefs that shampoos contain chemicals and so it could damage hair; shampoo is viewed more as a glamour value and lack of conviction about the functional usefulness of shampoo. Until pouch packet was introduced, a large section of the market found even the price quite high and not affordable. Over the last decade or so, marketers have tried different possible experiments to expand there market penetration. Initially major players have tried to create awareness and dispel some of the myths by heavy advertizing. Among many innovative strategies like offering of shampoo for particular major of hair or special formulations, small size packs, especially introduction of sachets etc., shift from the glass bottles to plastic bottle pouch pack lowering of unit price seams to have been most effective. For instance, CavinKare introduced a 50 paise sachet of Chik shampoo, when most other shachets were sold at Rs 2. Such a lower price strategy was an instant success. HUL has also offered its 50 paise pack for Lux shampoo. The claims the 30 ml bubble pack for Clinic Plus, is a cost effective alternative for sachet users. Innovation in features: The creation of an anti dandruff shampoos was the first step. Clinic plus, a word known to every one has bought the first anti dandruff shampoo in to the market. HUL experimented with Sunsilk to make different products for normal, dry, and oily hair. PG s Head Shoulders, Menthol and Pantene Lively Clean offer distinct function benefits to the target users. This strategy enable those brands to gain volume as well as earn better margin. The company that I selected is PG (Proctor Gamble) which has the second largest market share in India. When I visited the departmental store I came across a whole rack of PG products and when I keenly observed the shampoos section there were three different brands. The first one was Head Shoulders which basically aims at solving dandruff problems, when spoken with people I came to know that most of them are suffering from dandruff problems and their choice of selecting this particular shampoo was mainly because of the availability and the trust they have in the company no wonder the company enjoys such a huge market share. This particular brand also has a pinch of conditioner features which is also a valid reason why people select this. The second brand I came across was PGs Pantene which mostly targeted at a niche market however I can confidently say that peoples choice of any shampoo is not on price, this is very dangerous to conclude but this was too evident in my study. The other observation that I made was many were hating Pantene because of the more usage of chemicals which are harmful to hair this can be profited by PG by reducing the amount of chemicals used. The demand curve of Pantene is falling in the recent years and the only reason that I found was the usage of chemicals that in turn lead to hair loss. The third brand that was a bit difficult to find was PGs brand Rejoice my study shows that not many people were opting for rejoice, in an other study Rejoice was ranked as number 1 in Asian market. The typical characteristics, which were evident, are like low price and attractive cover image. Key Strategies Absorbed: As we now that PG is late entrant into the shampoo segment so its main target was to increase its market share. During its time of entry HUL was a huge company and had maximum market share in shampoo segment, so to compete with HULs product PG released a low price shampoo product. We can see that a Price competition took place. As time went on PG increased its products category to compete heavily with HUL and this competition can be called as Non-Price competition. PG have shampoo products catering to all kinds of segments. When I visited the departmental store the products that were targeted for the niche market occupied a considerable amount of space relative to the products that cater the needs of mass market. Pantene and Head Shoulders are the products specially for the niche market and Rejoice was for the mass market. Head and Shoulder priced at Rs.62 for 100ml and for 200ml Rs.120 and Rs. 3 for single sachet which contains around 6ml. Pantene shampoo sachet price is of about Rs. 3, for 100ml pack the price is Rs. 89, for 200ml pack the price is Rs.169,for 400ml pack the price is Rs. 325. Rejoice shampoo sachet price is of about Rs. 2 and for 100ml pack the price is Rs. 33. Space allocated: Two major principles in the success of retail market are sales and profits. The sales volume and the profitability can be measured in the amount of space consumed for the particular product. Depending upon the product category the products are allocated. The amount of space is allocated based on the previous performance of the particular product. If the demand for a particular product is growing then more space is allocated product or else the space allocated is decreased. Allocating the space according to the number of sales done. Allocation of the space for the particular product differs from store to store. The characteristics of the product determine the space allocation in both quality and quantity of space. CONCULSION: My keen observations made me to comment that Pantene has high price and low demand, Head Shoulders enjoys an equilibrium price and Rejoice has a very less demand when compared to other PG products which shows that supply is also on the lower side and hence less availability of Rejoice shampoo. Being it a Oligopolistic market PG spends a lot of amount on Non Price factors to have a Non-Price competition with its main rival HUL.

Steven Biko Essay -- Papers Racism South Africa

Steven Biko "We are looking forward to a non-racial, just and egalitarian society in which color, creed and race shall form no point of reference." - Steve Biko South Africa is home to a great supply of natural resources, inherent beauty, and one of the greatest political and social travesties of the modern era. The South African government has suppressed native African peoples for hundreds of years. In the last century the situation has gotten progressively worse through governmental legislation lead by the racist Afrikaner Nation Party. This injustice lasted unchallenged until the late 1950's when legislation became even more protective of the National Party's hold of political, economic, and social power. Social movements of every country and era rise and fall; Africa is no different. As leaders have come and gone, gathering public support against the government, the dangerous reality has been slowly sinking in. Political activist and former student leader, Steve Biko firmly believed that South Africa could eventually exist as an egalitarian society, free of racism. Biko's contribution to the South African freedom fight is invaluable. The South African government practiced banning which, prohibited anyone quoting Biko, the publication of any of his written work or the documentation of his character in any positive way. Banning was not uncommon in South Africa. The person had to remain in their assigned district and could not leave under any circumstances. The banned person could not be in the presence of more than one person at a time; the only exception being immediate family. It also forbade the person from writing (publishing) and speaking in public. Once a week the person was required to report to the local Se... ... popularity grew after his death because he was no longer seen as a leader, but rather a martyr. So why is South Africa still under white control? My answer to that is that talk is cheap and publicity even cheaper. The support and headlines were all that was given. Nothing permanent or structured was offered to the blacks. Today, a little less than thirty years later, I had trouble finding books on Steve Biko. To the western world he was a fad. Bibliography: Bibliography Biko, Steve. I Write What I Like. Ed. By Stubbs C.R., Aelred. Harper and Row Publishers, San Francisco. 1978. Dugard, John, Haysom, Nicholas and Marcus, Gilbert. The Last Years of Apartheid: Civil Liberties in South Africa. Ford Foundation, New York. 1992. Woods, Donald. Biko, the revised edition. Henry Holy and Co., New York. 1987. I also viewed the movie Cry Freedom

Sphere :: Sphere

Michael Crichton uses three common devices with ease in his novel, Sphere.   The devices being: rhetoric, semantics, and style.   Crichton uses these devices to incorporate a sense of unity in the writing.   It is not difficult to incorporate this unity into a novel when the devices are properly used.   When doing so, they flow together to create a more visual experience for the reader.   These devices of writing are what create the environment for an understandable, yet interesting storyline.   Rhetoric is the art of using language effectively and persuasively.   In doing so, the use of rhetoric fits in with how the writer of the story thinks and speaks.   Crichton is an intellectual, yet he does not write in a sense where the reader cannot understand.   He chooses to discuss many intellectual concepts, but in the process, Crichton makes them easy to understand by explaining them simply.   â€Å"The wasn’t geometric.   And it wasn’t amorphous or organic, either.   It was hard to say what it was.† (Crichton, 117)   In this excerpt, Crichton makes reference to a pattern.   He describes it enough to leave the feeling of not knowing what it is besides just a simple pattern.   Therefore, creating the feeling in which the characters feel.   Semantics refer to the study of language forms.   In Sphere, the language is not too different.   Every character in the novel is in fact an intellectual in one form or another.   They speak correct grammar, and communicate well with each other. The social environment, which is formed, makes for smooth transitions of communication.   The linguistics Crichton chose to use made the novel more appealing to the average reader.   Style can be defined as the way the author chooses to portray the characters and setting in his story.   Crichton picks a parallel in his novel.   The plot of Sphere deals with space exploration and alien existence.   Yet Crichton does not put the setting in outer space, but in the deep sea.   This parallelism is the basis for his entire novel.   Throughout the story, the unexpected occurs.   Even the main characters are unexpected.

Humorous Wedding Roast to a Groom Who is a Sports Fan :: Wedding Toasts Roasts Speeches

Humorous Wedding Speech to a Groom Who is a Sports Fan Good afternoon, Ladies and Gentlemen. For those of you that don't know me, my name is Rick and I'm Tim's oldest friend. I'm also a complete novice at public speaking and have this overwhelming urge to prove it to you today. I'd like to start off by saying that in marrying Rhonda this afternoon, Tim really has made the ultimate sacrifice. Not only has he given up his status as a single man, he has actually had to miss a pre-season game. And no Tim, I'm not going to cut this speech short so you can get back for the second half. Still, at least we're not missing the first game of the season. I am sure you will all agree that this has turned out to be a fabulous wedding celebration so far. Rhonda, you really do look beautiful in that dress and I could see Tim swelling with pride as you walked down the aisle earlier today. Now, as I said, I'm Tim's oldest friend. We are exceptionally close and very alike. In fact, friends used to comment that we were identical in appearance, interests and personality. So let me remind you, ladies and gentlemen, that Tim is a stunning individual oozing charisma and intelligence. So, starting from the very beginning, Tim was born in Portsmouth on the 6th January 1976. I did try to link this with some big world event but it seems that nothing else happened that day †¦ the day that the staff at Portsmouth Royal Infirmary still refer to as ‘Monkey Birth Tuesday’. It may surprise you to know that, as a youngster, Tim was a superb football player and if it wasn't for pubs opening all day he may very well have turned professional. For two seasons I played along side Tim in defense for our local village side. He got me into the team and on my first game, said: ‘OK, Jason - here's how this works. You do all the heading and tackling and, when you get the ball, give it to me, I'll take it up the field and score.’ Tim finished up top scorer that season, netting twice as many as our centre forward. But we finished bottom of the league and conceded an average of eight goals a game. We once lost a game 22-1, and guess who scored our goal.

Egon Schiele Biography

Egon Schiele (1890-1918) was a man concerned with issues of sexuality and death. Like other members of the Expressionist movement of the early twentieth century, he was fascinated with making his mental processes visible through his art. He wished to express his feelings about sexuality directly, rather than alluding to the subject as so many artists had done previously, artists such as Manet or Ingres. Instead, he took his cue from the influences of Rodin and Gustave Courbet, dealing with his subject directly, as he does in the piece Nude with Green Turban (1914). But unlike Courbet, who dealt with his subject in an effort to shock and influence the staid French Royal Academy, as in the case of L'Origine du Monde, 1866 (at right), Schiele explores the issue of sexuality in an attempt to express his own fascinations with the subject, irregardless of the opinions of others. In Nude with Green Turban, the subject is placed in a blank space. She is seemingly alone, so alone that there is nothing in the world of the piece except her. It's as if the viewer is meant to become part of the immediacy of her moment. Indeed, this may be what Schiele intends, having become lost in his own moment of artist to subject. Schiele owes much of this immediacy to Rodin's innovation of the continuous line drawing, and Schiele employs the method here. He has sketched her quickly, capturing her in her moment before going back to fill in the details. However, he has only completed the details selectively. Her shoes are well rendered, as are the shadows and fullness of her thighs and hands. In the turban as well, he has completed the small details of a knot, and filled it with the same color as the colors he's used as emphasis to the shadows her hands create. But her face is hastily done, her nose and closed eyes mere triangles. Her mouth is only the symbol of a mouth. She's as if she's a puppet, expressionless with no individuality. In so doing, he has removed the humanity from her, making her merely a body upon which her hands, and presumably the fantasies of the artist and viewer, play. I'm sure an argument could be made about how this is an example of the objectification of women within the early twentieth century and before. History has certainly shown repeatedly how women in art are mere objects for the male fantasy. What makes this different is how Schiele has not created her as a prize for whomever owns her, but has created her as an outlet for his own fantasy (and, I should hope, for hers). However, today I don't believe Schiele would be able to create such overt expressions of his fantasies without cries of outrage from the feminist community. Since the 1960's, women have progressed away from being objects and possessions, giving themselves a face and a voice within the western world. Today, Schiele would be forced to give his model a face, and perhaps a name. While much of today's art is as direct in its subjects as Schiele's art is, the mere suggestion of objectifying a woman in a sexual act is taboo. Instead, if Schiele were to give her a face, a name, and place her into a world other than the blank canvas of the viewer's mind, she would become, in effect, â€Å"real. † In becoming a â€Å"real† woman, she would become an expression of femininity not being afraid to be feminine. She would become part of the world women inhabit, able to be claimed by women as one of their own. As she is now, she is a fantasy, a creature of male sexual expression. Much of the art today seems to be concerned with issues of fantasy versus reality. With the advent of the internet, more and more people are able to express their internal fantasies upon someone else. In this way, Schiele's work is extremely contemporary. People want to lose themselves within images, feeling the ideas of the artist, but I do not believe that most art patrons want their art to be as obvious as Schiele's. That said, I believe that Schiele's themes of fantasy and sexuality would be more subtle today. People want the slow glow of accomplishment that they receive in correctly interpreting a piece of art. Direct sexuality is outre and today's public seems to prefer a more subtle approach. Nude with Green Turban is a prime example of Egon Schiele's objectification of his subject, not out of line with the schema of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, portraying women as sexual objects of the male fantasy. With the women's movement of today, this theme would be handled in such a way as to include not only the male fantasy, but the female fantasy as well, by removing her objectification. She would become more real. In addition, the sexual subject would be more subtle in an attempt to reach all viewers, introducing an intellectualism that appeals to the female mind as well as the male, creating eroticism out of perceived pornography.

An Economic report of Manchester Essay

Employment Performance Which sectors does Manchester outperform the UK. Education it outperforms the UK it’s the second largest city In the UK its normal to expect it to spend more on education due to its high population. Interestingly professional Scientific and technical activities outperform the UK. A new economy has been put in place a smarterEconomy based on tertiary sectors moving away from its manufacturing past. 2023 its estimating employment in The above sector will rise around 130,000 for the greater Manchester region. Accommodation and food service Activities outperforming the UK is expected also as it’s the second most visited city in England and 3rd in the UK. Sectors which do poorly manufacturing once the cotton producing capital of the world now this industry is all but Extinct. Information and communication is behind the UK average this is surprising as recently media city has been opened in Manchester ITV, BBC and SIS are based there. Madchester Today It’s important not to underestimate the effect cities music or sports scene has, many people would recognise Liverpool ahead of a more economically significant city like Birmingham due to The Beatles. Manchester became the music capital of England in the 80s and continued onwards in the 90’s. Manchester United is the most supported club in the world. Forbes lists it as the second most valuable club behind Real Madrid. The soul of the city based on sports with heavy music influences. One effect is the number of young people who want to live there. Young people want to live and study in a vibrant city; Manchester University and MMU are ranked 1 & 2 in number of applicants for degree courses. There are 3 universities with 87776 students making it one of the most popular cities to study. Below you can see it has the 4th lowest house prices and 3rd highest wages in the UK. This makes it an incredible desirable location to live. In 2001 it was the 21st most vibrant city in the UK today it now number one making it the most vibrant city in the UK surpassing London. There is a large number of young residents, cheap housing and high wages helping organic growth. The location quotients show that the sectors with relative high levels of employment are all mostly in high end sectors, or hotels and similar accommodation which bring in revenue to the local economy. The sectors all bring in wealth so this is a good sign for Manchester’s growth for the future. North West Rivalry â€Å"It’s not just about two clubs, it’s about two cities, two unbelievable histories, two clubs that both think they are the biggest in the world, so there is a lot of ego at stake.† Lee Sharpe. There is a huge rivalry from the two cities of Liverpool and Manchester. Modern day rivalry has been mostly seen on the football field but it’s not always been the case. Historically the two cities thrived in the industrial revolution. The rivalry was ignited when Manchester decided to build a ship canal the largest in the world at that time. This meant Manchester no longer had to pay dues to Liverpool in order to use their port. Now the rivalry has died down as Manchester surpassed its economically and in sporting terms many years ago. Unemployment graph to the right shows how Liverpool’s unemployment has been higher in modern times. There has been a bit of convergence in recession times but Manchester still leads the way economically. Conclusion From this report you can see how Manchester’s economy evolved with technological advances. A thriving industrial city from the industrial revolution evolved unlike other industrial cities. It has a modern advanced economy it has become the most important city in the North-West economically. The sectors which thrive are high end sectors which generate a lot of revenue as shown in the location quotients on the previous page. It has a rich history musically and sporting, now it is the 2nd most visited city in England. This means the tourist industry thrives bringing in revenue from the other regions or nations. This has helped ease the recessions damage, from 2010 GVA has been increasing annually from 2010. The cities soul appears to be music and sporting orientated, the old mills and print works have been redeveloped it still retains remnants of its old industrial past. This is a city which is improving year after year, whether it is economic growth or quality of life. The city has a high standard of living voted most vibrant city in the UK climbing 20 places in 12 years.

Beethoven’s Life Outline

1. Intro: Composer Ludwig van Beethoven was an innovator, widening the scope of sonata, symphony, concerto, and quartet, and combining vocals and instruments in a new way. His personal life was marked by a struggle against deafness, and some of his most important works were composed during the last 10 years of his life, when he was quite unable to hear. He is an crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, a pianist, a composer who remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers. 2. Body:Family: Composer, pianist, Ludwig Van Beethoven, widely considered the greatest composer of all time, was born on or about December 16, 1770 in the city of Bonn, Germany. Although his exact date of birth is uncertain, Beethoven was baptized on December 17, 1770. Beethoven had two younger brothers who survived into adulthood, Caspar, born in 1774, and Johann, born in 1776. Beethoven's mother, Maria Magdalena van Beethoven, was a slender , genteel, and deeply moralistic woman. His mother was always described as a gentle, retiring woman, with a warm heart.Beethoven referred to her as his â€Å"best friend. † His father, Johann van Beethoven, was a mediocre court singer. Beethoven was born in a family in which his grandfather and father were musicians too. Beethoven's grandfather, Kapellmeister Ludwig van Beethoven, was Bonn's most prosperous and eminent musician, a source of endless pride for young Ludwig. After his mother’s death in 1787, Beethoven’s father lapsed deeper into alcoholism. As a result, Beethoven became responsible for his family. At home, little by little, Ludwig replaced his father.His father Johann, often under the influence of drink, was less and less capable of keeping up his role at the court. The young Beethoven felt responsible for his two younger brothers Carrer: Beethoven’s talent was obvious at young age. His first music teacher was his father. Although tradition has it that Johann van Beethoven was a harsh instructor, and that the child Beethoven, â€Å"made to stand at the keyboard, was often in tears†. He studied the violin and clavier with his father as well as taking additional lessons from organists around town. The musical and teaching talents of Johann were limited.Soon Ludwig learned music, notably the organ and composition by renowned musicians, such as Gottlob Neefe. Neefe recognized how extraordinarily talented Beethoven was, introduced Beethoven to Bach (also a . And at the age of twelve Beethoven published his first composition, a set of piano variations on a theme by an obscure classical composer named Dressler. In 1784, Neefe also recommended 14-year-old Beethoven be the organist of the court of Maximillian Franz. This post enabled him to frequent new circles, other than those of his father and friends of his family.In 1787 the court decided to send Beethoven to Vienna to study with Mozart. Howevever, only few weeks af ter arriving in Vienna, Beethoven learnt that his mother had fallen desperately ill, he rushed home to Bonn. After his mother’s death, Beethoven remained in Bonn and continued to carve out his reputation as the city's most promising young court musician. In 1792, Beethoven backed to Vienna to establish his career. From 1790 to 1792, Beethoven composed a significant number of works that demonstrated his growing range and maturity. By 1793, Beethoven established a reputation as an improviser in the salons of the nobility.In that year, he had also established a reputation in Vienna as a piano virtuoso. Loss of hearing, illness and death Around 1796, by the age of 26, his hearing began to deteriorate, yet he continued to compose, conduct, and perform, even after becoming completely deaf. The cause of Beethoven's deafness is unknown, probably because of even his habit of immersing his head in cold water to stay awake. In 1802, he wrote a famous text which expressed his disgust at the unfairness of life, that he, a musician, could become deaf was something he did not want to live through.Almost miraculously, despite his rapidly progressing deafness, Beethoven continued to compose at a furious pace. The most famous masterpieces in this period of time is symphonies No. 3-8, the â€Å"Moonlight Sonata,† the â€Å"Kreutzer† violin sonata and Fidelio, his only opera. Despite his extraordinary output of beautiful music, Beethoven was lonely and frequently miserable throughout his adult life. Short-tempered, absent-minded, greedy and suspicious to the point of paranoia, Beethoven feuded with his brothers, his publishers, his housekeepers, his pupils and his patrons.By 1814, Beethoven was almost totally deaf. In 1826, Beethoven caught cold, The illness complicated other health problems from which Beethoven had suffered all his life. He passed away encircled by his closest friends on March 26th 1827, just as a storm broke out. Beethoven died on 26 March 1827 at the age of 56 during a thunderstorm. Beethoven's funeral procession on 29 March 1827 was attended by an estimated 20,000 Viennese citizens. Music: Beethoven is acknowledged as one of the giants of classical music. His influence on subsequent generations of composers was profound.His work comprises more than 650 compositions. Beethoven composed in several musical genres. His works for symphony orchestra include nine symphonies, and about a dozen pieces of â€Å"occasional† music, seven concerti and only one for opera. His large body of compositions for piano includes 32 piano sonatas, 10 violin sonatas, 5 cello sonatas. Beethoven's compositional career is usually divided into Early, Middle, and Late periods. In this scheme, his early period is taken to last until about 1802, the middle period from about 1803 to about 1814, and the late period from about 1815.In his Early period, Beethoven's work was strongly influenced by his predecessors Haydn and Mozart. He also expl ored new directions and gradually expanded the scope and ambition of his work. Some important pieces from the Early period are the first and second symphonies, the set of six string quartets Opus 18, the first two piano concertos, and the first dozen or so piano sonatas, including the famous sonata, Op. 13 His Middle (Heroic) period began shortly after Beethoven's personal crisis brought on by his recognition of encroaching deafness.It includes large-scale works that express heroism and struggle. Middle-period works include six symphonies (Nos. 3–8), the last three piano concertos, the Triple Concerto and violin concerto, five string quartets (Nos. 7–11), several piano sonatas (including the Moonlight, Waldstein and Appassionata sonatas), the Kreutzer violin sonata and Beethoven's only opera, Fidelio. Beethoven's Late period began around 1815. Works from this period are characterised by their intellectual depth, their formal innovations, and their intense, highly perso nal expression.The Ninth Symphony is his last work. His famous work: Symphony No5 (Fate), Symphony No3, Symphony No9 (written when Beethoven was completely deaf), Moonlight Sonata, Fur Elise, †¦. 3. Conclusion Beethoven was one of the most famous and influential of all composers. He is in memory of everybody. The Beethoven Monumeny, Bonn, was umveiled where he was born in August 1845, in honour of his 75th anniversary. A statue to Mozart had been unveiled in Salzburg, Austria in 1842. People all over the world consider him as the giant of classical music.

Psychodynamic Perspective Essay

There are various different approaches in contemporary approaches. An approach is a perspective that involves assumptions about human behaviour, the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study and what research methods are appropriate for undertaking this study. There may be several different theories within an approach, but they all share these common assumptions. You may be wonder why there are so many different psychology perspectives and whether one approach is correct and others wrong. Most psychologists would agree that no one perspective is correct, although in the past, in the early days of psychology, the behaviourist would have said their perspective was the only truly scientific one. Each perspective has its strengths and weakness and brings something different to our understanding of human behaviour. For this reason, it is important that psychology does have different perspectives to the understanding and study of human and animal behaviour. There are few clear explanations of common misbehaviour among secondary school students aged 16-19 years of age in terms of psychological theories. These explanations from the earlier psychologists able to make us understand more about gang violence that is increasing in amount nowadays. 3.0 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE 3.1 DEFINITION Psychodynamic referred to as an approach to psychology that emphasises systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behaviour, feelings and emotions and how they might relate to early experience. It is especially interested in the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation. It is also used by some to refer specifically to the psychoanalytical approach developed by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his followers, although such use becomes confusing, because some of those followers, in particular, John Bowlby opposed the founding principles of Freud’s theory, forming opposing factions. Bowlby’s attachment theory, still described as ‘psychodynamic’ in approach, is widely considered to be the basis of most current research and to have put the field formerly known as psychoanalysis on a more scientifically based,  experimentally testable, footing. The words psychodynamic and psychoanalytic are often confused. Remember that Freud’s theories were psychoanalytic, whereas the term ‘psychodynamic’ refers to both his theories and those of his followers. Freud’s psychoanalysis is both a theory and a therapy. Sigmund Freud developed a collection of theories which have formed the basis of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. His theories are clinically derived for example based on what his patients told him during therapy. The psychodynamic therapist would usually be treating the patient for depression or anxiety related disorders. Psychodynamic psychology ignores the trappings of science and instead focuses on trying to get ‘inside the head’ of individuals in order to make sense of their relationships, experiences and how they see the world. The psychodynamic approach includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person, particularly unconscious and between the different structures of the personality. Freud’s psychoanalysis was the original psychodynamic theory, but the psychodynamic approach as a whole includes all theories that were based on his ideas, e.g. Jung (1964), Adler (1927) and Erikson (1950). 3.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE ASSUMPTIONS Behaviour and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives. Behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences. All behaviour has a cause (usually unconscious), even slips of the tongue. Therefore all behaviour is determined. Parts of the unconscious mind (the id and superego) are in constant conflict with the conscious part of the mind (the ego). Personality is shaped as the drives are modified by different conflicts at different times in childhood (during psychosexual development). The unconscious is one of the most powerful effects on behaviour and emotion No behaviour is without cause and is therefore determined. Childhood experiences greatly affect emotions and behaviour as adults. The  id, ego and super-ego make up personality  The drives behind behaviour are a) The lift instinct and sex drive b) Death instinct and aggressive drive. Various conflicts throughout childhood development shape overall personality. The psychodynamic perspective asserts that in childhood certain incidents may occur that produce behaviours in adulthood. As children, defence mechanisms are utilized, then as adults behaviours manifest as a result. Examples of defence mechanisms that may be used include: Repression Denial Reaction formation Sublimation Projection Displacement Regression Fantasy Some examples of behaviours and their explanations using psychodynamic perspective include: Obsessive hand washing could be linked to a trauma in childhood that now causes this behaviour Nail-biting may be caused by an anxiety inducing childhood event A childhood event that caused fear in an open space may trigger agoraphobia in an adult Hoarding behaviours could be a result of childhood trauma Number aversion can be an obsessive behaviour perhaps initiated by an incident in childhood development Rituals of nervousness such as completing a task a certain number of times (such as opening and closing a cabinet) could be linked to a childhood situation Skin picking is a compulsion that would be linked to a developmental trauma Another compulsive behaviour is hair plucking Compulsively counting footsteps could be linked to an incident in childhood.  Any irrational behaviours can be blamed on childhood instances of trauma or development Neurotic behaviours can be linked to childhood development issues or interruptions Sexual compulsions or related sexual behavioural issues are linked at the sexual development stage using the psychodynamic perspective. 3.3 HISTORY OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE Anna O a patient of Dr. Joseph Breuer, who is Freud’s mentor and friend, from 1800 to 1882 suffered from hysteria. In 1895 Breuer and his assistant, Sigmund Freud, wrote a book, Studies on Hysteria. In it they explained their theory that says every hysteria is the result of a traumatic experience, one that cannot be integrated into the person’s understanding of the world. The publication establishes Freud as â€Å"the father of psychoanalysis.† By 1896, Freud had found the key to his own system, naming it psychoanalysis. In it he had replaced hypnosis with â€Å"free association.† In 1900, Freud published his first major work, The Interpretation of Dreams, which established the importance of psychoanalytical movement. In 1902, Freud founded the Psychological Wednesday Society, later transformed into the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. As the organization grew, Freud established an inner circle of devoted followers, the so-called â€Å"Committee†. Freud and his colleagues came to Massachusetts in 1909 to lecture on their new methods of understanding mental illness. Those in attendance included some of the country’s most important intellectual figures, such as William James, Franz Boas, and Adolf Meyer. In the years following the visit to the United States, the International Psychoanalytic Association was founded. Freud designated Carl Jung as his successor to lead the Association, and chapters were created in major cities in Europe and elsewhere. Regular meetings or congresses were held to discuss the theory, therapy, and cultural applications of the new discipline. Jung’s study on schizophrenia, The Psychology of Dementia Praecox, led him into collaboration with Sigmund Freud. Jung’s close collaboration with Freud lasted until 1913. Jung had become increasingly critical of Freud’s exclusively sexual definition of libido and incest. The publication of Jung’s Wandlungen und Symbole der  Libido, known in English as The Psychology of the Unconscious, ted to a final break. Following his emergence from this period of crisis, Jung developed his own theories systematically under the name of Analytical Psychology. Jung’s concepts of the collective unconscious led him to explore religion in the East and West, myths, alchemy and later flying saucers. Anna Freud, Freud’s daughter, became a major force in British psychology, specializing in the application of psychoanalysis to children. Among her best known work is The Ego and the Mechanism of Defence (1936). 3.4 PSYCHODYNAMIC STRENGTH AND LIMITATIONS STRENGTHS LIMITATIONS Made the case study method popular in psychology Defence mechanisms Free association Projective Tests (TAT, Rorschach) Highlighted the importance of childhood Case studies are subjective and cannot generalize results Unscientific (lacks empirical support) Too deterministic (little free-will) Biased sample Ignores meditational processes (e.g. thinking, memory) Rejects free will Difficult to prove wrong 3.5 PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE CRITICISMS The greatest criticism of the psychodynamic approach is that it is unscientific in its analysis of human behaviour. Many of the concepts central to Freud’s theories are subjective and as much impossible to scientifically test. For example, how is it possible to scientifically study concepts like the unconscious mind or the tripartite personality? In this respect, the psychodynamic perspective is difficult to prove wrong as the theories cannot be empirically investigated. Furthermore, most of the evidence for psychodynamic theories is taken from Freud’s case studies, e.g. Little Hans, Anna O. The main problem here is that the case studies are based on studying one person in detail and with reference to Freud the individuals in question are most often middle aged women from Vienna for instance his patients. This makes generalizations to the wider population difficult. The humanistic approach makes the criticism that the psychodynamic perspective is too deterministic that it is leaving little room for the idea of personal agency. 3.6 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY OF GANG VIOLENCE The psychodynamic theory places its emphasis on the notion that one of the main causes of gang violence is children’s abnormal personalities that were created and developed in earlier life. Since then these â€Å"unconscious mental processes† have been controlling the adolescents’ criminal behaviour. The Id is the drive for immediate gratification and can explain gang violence acts. The ego is the realization of real life and helps control the Id. Superego develops through interactions with parents and other responsible adults and develops the conscience of moral rules. This psychodynamic approach states that traumatic experiences during early childhood can prevent the ego and superego from developing properly, therefore leaving the Id with greater power (Champion, 2004). According to psychodynamic theory, whose basis is the pioneering work of the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, law violations are a product of an abnormal personality structure formed early in life and which thereafter controls human behaviour choices. Unconscious motivations for behaviour come from the Id’s action in response to two primal needs-sex and aggression. Human behaviour is often marked by symbolic actions that reflect hidden feelings about these needs. For example, stealing a car may reflect a person’s unconscious need for shelter and mobility to escape from hostile enemies or perhaps an urge to enter a closed, dark, womblike structure that reflects the earliest memories (sex). All three segments of the personality operate simultaneously. The Id dictates needs and desires, the superego counteracts the Id by fostering the feelings of morality and righteousness and the ego evaluates the reality of a position between these two extremes. If these two components are properly balanced, the individual can lead a normal life. If one aspect of the personality becomes dominant at the expense of the others, the individual exhibits abnormal personality traits. A number of psychologists and psychiatrists expanded upon Freud’s original model to explain the onset of gang violence among adolescents. Erik Erikson speculated that many adolescents experience a life crisis in which they feel emotional, impulsive and uncertain of their role and purpose. He coined the phrase identity crisis to denote this period of inner turmoil and confusion. Erikson’s approach might characterize the behaviour of youthful drug abusers as an expansion of confusion over their place in society, their inability to direct behaviour towards useful outlets and perhaps their dependency on others to offer them solutions to their problems. Psychoanalyst, August Aichorn, found in his classic work that social stress alone could not produce such an emotional state. He identify latent delinquencies which means youths whose troubled family leads them to seek immediate gratification without consideration of right and wrong or the feelings of others. In its most extreme form, gang violence may be viewed as a form of psychosis that prevents delinquent youths from appreciating the feelings of their victims or controlling their own impulsive needs for gratification. Psychodynamic theory holds that youth involvement in gang violence is a result of unresolved mental anguish and internal conflict. Some children, especially those who have been abused or mistreated, might experience unconscious feelings associated with resentment, fear and hatred. If this conflict cannot be settled, the children may regress to a state in which they become Id dominated. This regression may be considered responsible for a great number of mental diseases, from neuroses to psychoses, and in many cases it may be related to criminal behaviour. Adolescents in gangs are Id-dominated people who suffer from the inability to control impulsive drives. Just because they suffered unhappy experiences in childhood or had families who could not  provide proper love and care, causing them to suffer from weak or damaged egos that make them unable to cope with conventional society. Adolescent antisocial behaviour is a consequence of feeling unable to cope with feelings of oppression. Involvement in gang violence actually allows youths to strive by producing positive psychic results, helping them to feel free and independent, giving them possibility of excitement and the chance to use their skills and imagination; providing the promise of positive gain, allowing them to blame others for their predicament (for example, the police) and giving them a chance to rationalize their own sense of failure. The psychodynamic approach places a heavy emphasis on the family’s role. Gangs frequently come from families in which parents unable to provide the controls that allow children to develop the personal tools they need to cope with the world. If neglectful parents fail to develop a child’s superego adequately, the child’s Id may become the predominant personality force, the absence of a strong superego results in an inability to distinguish clearly between right and wrong. In fact, some psychodynamic view gangs as motivated by an unconscious urge to be punished. These children feel unloved, assume the reason must be their own inadequacy, hence they deserve punishment. Later, the youth may demand immediate gratification, lack of compassion and sensitivity for the needs of others, disassociate feelings, act aggressively and impulsively and demonstrate other psychotic symptoms. According to the psychodynamic approach, gang violence is a function of unconscious mental instability and turmoil. People who have lost control and are dominated by their Id are known as psychotics, thus causing their behaviour be marked by hallucinations and inappropriate responses. Megargee’s ‘overcontrolled’ violent offender Megargee (1966) documented a series of cases of gang violence carried out by people who were regarded as passive and harmless. For instance, an 11 year-old boy who stabbed his brother 34 times with a steak knife was described as polite and softly spoken with no history of aggression. Megargee argued that such cases represent a distinct sub-group of violent offender criminological psychology. Psychodynamic theories of offending Aidan Sammons whose shared characteristic is an apparent inability to express their anger in normal ways and who eventually ‘explode’ and release all their anger and aggression at once, often in response to a seemingly trivial provocation. Freudian formulations like Megargee’s are unfashionable nowadays and more research attention is given to the majority of violent offenders, whose problem is generally a lack of inhibition of their anger, rather than too much inhibition. Nonetheless, there is evidence that a subset of violent offenders follow the pattern described by Megargee. For example, Blackburn (1971) found that people convicted of extremely violent assaults tended to have fewer previous convictions and scored lower on measures of hostility than those convicted of moderately violent assaults. However, the existence of such a group does not in itself show that Megargee was correct about the underlying mechanisms responsible.